Criminalization and State Violence
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Systemic Profiling: Minority boys are more likely to be stopped, searched, and arrested than other groups
- The Sentencing Project, Nellis / 2024: The Color of Justice: Racial Disparities in Arrest and Incarceration
- Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Peterson / 2025: Disproportionate Minority Contact and Police Stop Policies
Sentencing Disparities: Subject to harsher sentencing for similar offenses
- ACLU Criminal Law Reform Project, ACLU Staff / 2024: Unequal Treatment: Racial Disparities in Juvenile Justice Sentencing
- Criminology & Public Policy, Johnson & Ward / 2025: The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Juvenile Sentencing Guidelines
Structural Context: These patterns reflect gendered racial control, not elevated wrongdoing by the boys themselves
- American Sociological Review, Davis / 2024: Policing Boyhood: Gendered Racial Control in Urban Neighborhoods
- Vera Institute of Justice, Vera Staff / 2025: Beyond the Numbers: Structural Racism and the Criminalization of Youth of Color